CONTENTS PAGE IINTRODUCTION: The Nature and Value of Apologetics A. Knowledge and the Sources of Knowledge. , xi B.FaithandltsJustification xii C. Nature and Division of Apologetics xiv D. The Value of Apologetics xiv SECTION I REASONABLENESS OF OUR BELIEF IN GOD CHAPTER I. The Exist~nce of God A. The Arguments for the Existence of God in General. I B. The Teleological Argument, or the Reign of Law in the Universe 4 C. The Cosmological Argument, or God and the Origin of the Universe 10 D. The Moral Argument, or God in Conscience. !4 E. The Historical Argument, or Man's Need of God. 17 F. The Nature and Attributes of God 19 CHAPTER ". Man and His Place in the Universe A. The Immortality of the Soul 25 I. The Possibility of Immortality 26 2. The Fact of Immortality 28 3. Objections to the Belief in Immortality 3! B. Man and the Lower Animals 32 C. Prehistoric Man 35 D. The Age of Man 37 SECTION n REASONABLENESS OF OUR BELIEF IK CHRIST CHAPTER 1. Revelation and the Signs of Revelation. 47 CHAPTER ". Sourees of Our Knowledge of Christ and His Teaching A. Non-Christian Sources 53 B. Christian Sources 55 I. The Epistles of St. Paul and the Other Apostles. 55 2. The Four Gospels 5; a) The Gospels are Genuine 58 b) The Gospels are Intact 62 c) The Gospels are Truthfnl 65 3. TheActsoftheApostles 68 ix x CONTENTS ! CHAPTER III. The Claims of Jesus A. JesusClaimedtobetheMessias.,..., , ",.,...,"" 71 B.Jesus Claimed to be the SonofGod ",..., , 7] C. Some Difficulties Solved ,...,..,.,.."..."..., , 75 CHAPTER IV. Jesus Justified His Claim!; A. The Perfect Holiness of Jcsus , ,. 82 B. The Superhuman Wisdom of Jesus , ,. R3 C. The Miracles of J esus , 86 SECTION In REASONABLENESS OF OUR BELIEF IN THE CHURCH CHAPTER I. The Founding of the Church, , ..., , , , , 93 CHAPTER II. The Constitution of the Church. ., , , ., ., .., , .99 CHAPTER III. The Primacy of St. Peter. , ., , 1O3 CHAPTER IV. The Primacy of the Roman Pontiff. , .., .., 1o9 CHAPTER V. The Infallibility of the Church and the Pope A. The Church of Christ Must Be Infallible , 115 B. The Infallibility of the Pope 117 C. Some Objections Answered , " 118 CHAPTER VI. Outside the Church There Is No Salvation. 123 INDEX ,', , 131 r ! Introduction THE NATURE J\ND V ALUE OF ApOLOGETICS A. Knolvledgc (uld the ,~ources 01 Knolvledge I. We possess all our knowledge in the form of judgments. -We know something only when '\'e state, at least mentally, that two ideas or concepts, one of which is called the subject, the other the predicate, agree with each other, or do not agree with each other, I f I say: "Shakespeare is a dramatist," I assert the agree- ment of the two concepts "Shakespeare" and "dramatist." I f I say: "Men are not angels," I assert the disagreement of the t\VO concepts "men" and "angels." 2. If our judgment is in harmony with reality, it is a true judgment, as "Heat expands iron" ; if it is not in harmony with reality, it is a false judgment, as " A circle is not round," I four judgments are uttered without fear of error, they are cerfain; if they are uttered with fear of error, they are ftnccrfain, and therefore mere opinions. "Twice two is four," is a certain judg- ment; "Tomorrow will be rainy," is nothing but an opinion. 3. Before making a judgment we must have a reason for doing so.-We get our reasons for forming our judgments from what are cal!ed the sources of knO'ltIledgc. There are of various kinds : a) Some truths are in themselves so evident as to be clearly understood by al! who have the use of reason, as soon as they are put in words. Such truths are cal!ed sclf-evident, because they require no demonstration. For example, when once we understand the meaning of the terms, we cannot fail to grasp that "the whole is greater than its part," or that "the radii of a circle are equal," or that "everything which begins to exist must have been brought into existence by something distinct from itself," or that "what is, is, and cannot at the same time not be." b) From these self-evident and necessary truths another class of truths is drawn by a process of reasoning, that is, not by com- paring two concepts directly ,vith each other, but by comparing each with a third, on the principle that two things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other. xiii -:T- INTl{ODUCTION c) Other things we know to be true from the evidence of our se1JSes. We can trust our senses unhesitatingly if the sense we are using, e.g., sight or hearing, is in a normal condition and properly applied to the object. d) Lastly, there, are many things which we do not know of our- selves, but which we accept on the authority of otl1er people. If our belief rests on the testimony of man, who can err, it is human faith; i f it rests on the testimony of God, who cannot err, it is Divine Faith.. B. Faith and Its Justification I. To have Divine Faith means to hold firmly and without doubting, all that Go<.! has revealed and, through His Church, pro- poses for our belief. The truths of revelation are the Object of Faith; the authority of God, implying infallibility in knowledge, and truth in utterance, is the M olive of faith, the reason 'It,hy we believe what God has revealed. The Church is the ordinary and infallible means by which we know the truths revealed by God. Our reason left to itself gives assent only to such judgments as are evidently true. Hence, since the Articles of Faith are not evident, the u.j/l plays a very important part in the making of an Act of Faith. O11ly he can belil"lle '(('ho is '(t.illillg to believe. The will gives assent to the word of God because it sees in God its highest good. With Simon Peter it says: "Thou hast the words of eternal life" (John 6,69). In giving its assent, the will is ele- vated and strengthened by the grace of G od. By grace, our Faith becomes supernatural; by the assent of the will, it becomes a free , moral, and, therefore, meritorious act. 2. Our Faith is not an affair of sentiment, a leap in the dark, or an "abdication of our reason" ; on the contrary, it is a "seeing faith," a "reasonable service." Every intelligent Catholic should be in a position to justify his Faith at the bar of his reason and his conscience. He must, in other words, be able to form the fol- lowing judgments : a) I tI~ay and can believe these truths proposed for my belief, because God has revealed them ; b) I must believe these truths, because God is my supreme Lord and my only salvation. The first of these judgments, which is called the judgment of ~- INTRODUCTION xv "Lord to whom shall we go ? Thou hast the words of , eternal life." (John 6, 69) crcdibility (judiciun� credibilitatis) rests on three other judg- ments: I. There is a God who can neither deceive nor be deceived. 2. This God has revealed Himself to tIS in the Old Testament through the Patriarchs and the Prophets, in the New Testament through Christ and the Apostles. 3. Christ fo�mdcd a ChurcJ~ which He endowed with infallibil- ity for the safeguarding and propagation of Divine Revelation. These three judgments are called motives of credibility ( 7notiva rrcdibilitatis) .The first is philosophical, the other two are histori- cal. In the case of the second, viz., that God has revealed Himself to us, it is sufficient to prove that J esus Chrlsl ir Ike S(71t (7/ C(7tt' ond //w rn.rJ'rUntC;1tJ' (7/ .D"VI:'t"" ..R """/al'..0,,,,- He guarantees for us the revelations =ade ir7 the Old Testarnent j and by His teaching and the sending of the Holy Ghost on the Apostles, He also guar- antees the revelations made through the Apostles. 3. The Mysteries of our Faith cannot be proved from reason INTRODUCTION xv "Lord, to whom shall we go ? Thou hast the words of eternal life." (John 6, 69) credibility (judiciunt credibilitatis) rests on three other j udg- ments: I. There is a God who can neither deceive nor be deceived. 2. This God has re'"llealed Himself to us in the Old Testament through the Patriarchs and the Prophets, in the New Testament through Christ and the Apostles. 3. Christ fotmded a Church which He endowed with infallibil- ity for the safeguarding and propagation of Divine Revelation. These three judgments are called motives of credibility ( 1notiva credibilitatis) .The first is philosophical, the other two are histori- cal. In the case of the second, viz., that God has revealed Himsel f to us, it is sufficient to prove that lest's Christ is the Son of God and tlze instruntent of Divine Revelation. He guarantees for us the revelations made in the Old Testament; and by His teaching and the sending of the Holy Ghost on the Apostles, He also guar- antees the revelations made through the Apostles. 3. The Mysteries of our Faith cannot be proved from reason xvi INTRODUCTION and history, because they are beyond reason and therefore incom- prehensible. "The divine mysteries," says the Council of the Vatican, "by their own nature so far transcend the. created intelligence that, even when delivered by Revelation and received by Faith, they remain covered with a veil of Faith itself, and shrouded in a certain degree of darkness, so long as \ve are pilgrims in this mortal life, not yet with God."* In regard to these mysteries we must content ourselves \vith proving that they are not contrary to reason and that they possess an ine~timable value for our souls. It is different with the three truths on which the reasonableness of our Faith rests. The exist- ence of God, the Divinity of Christ, and the divine institution of the Church can be proved by philosophical and historical arguments. c. Nature and Division 01 Apologetics The science which proves the reasonableness of the Catholic Faith is called Apologc.tics, from the Greek word apologia, "de- fense," "justification." "Be ready always," says St. Peter, "to .I"atisfy everyone that asketh you a reason of that hope which is in yOlI" (I Pet. 3,15). I. Apologetics answers three questions.- I. ~Vhy 1nust we worship God? 2. rv.h.v m/.tst 'l{'e be Christians? 3. ~Vhy mJ.tst 'l('e be Caiholics? 2. In our defense of our Faith we have three classes of opponents to deal with.- I. .4thcists, Pantheists, and .L11aterialists, who deny the exist- ence of a Living, Personal God; i.e. of a Being endowed with intelligence and free will, the First Cause of all things distinct from Jlimself. 2. J e'lt'S, M ohammedans, Deists ( Rationalists) , and lndiffer- ('ntists, who deny the divine origin of the Christian Religion. 3. If eretics of various kinds, \V ho deny one or more articles of the Catholic Faith. D. The "alue 01 Apologetics I. Apologetics cannot produce supernatural Faith.-Faith is a gift of God. In Baptism God even "gives us the eyes with which to see Him." Besides, Apologetics appeals entirely to the *Vatican Council I (1870) is referred to here. -Editor (1990). - INTRODUCTION xvii THE HARMONY OF FAITH AND REASON intellect, whereas Faith is a matter both of the intellect and th~ will. "Faith," says St. Thomas, "is an act of the ltnderstanding adhering to Divine Truth by command of the will moved by the grace of God." 2. Apologetics does not claim to be able to prove the foon- dations of Faith with mathematical certainty.- The proposi- tion "The whole is greater than its part" forces conviction on us because the contrary proposition is unthinkable. But the proposi- tion "Jesus of"Nazareth arose from the dead" is not evident in the same way. It is an historical statement, the contrary of which is not impossibIe or unthinkable. The highest kil1d of certainty We can have in regard to it is that Jvhich t';rclttdcs a!! reasonab!r doubt. Our proofs are conclusive, but not coercive. They carry convictiol1 to those who consider them with open minds, but not to those who are blinded by Passion or preJudIce. "lIlathematical propositions," says the French philosopher Malebranche ,re ~ot attacked sim?ly because the human passions are not interested i; ~cki?g t?em. But If the Pythagorean proposition imposed any moral !Igatlon, It would certainly be attacked If Some AcademfS. t h S..Yo Clence re o set up. t. e Ixth and Seventh Commandments as scientific propo- D~S. the valIdIty of these propositions would immediately be called in stlon by all the adulterers and thieves in the world." -- INTRODUCTION xvii THE HARMONY OF FAITH AND REASON intellect, whereas Faith is a matter both of the intellect and th- will. "Faith," says St. Thomas, "is an act of the Itnderstandin9 adhering to Divine Truth by command of the will moved by the grace of God." 2. Apologetics does not claim to be able to prove the foun- dations of Faith with mathematical certainty.-The proposi- tion "The whole is greater than its part" forces conviction on us because the contrary proposition is unthinkable. But the proposi- tion "Jesus of"Nazareth arose from the dead" is not evident in the same way. It is an historical statement, the contrary of which is not impossible or unthinkable. The highest kind of certainty we can have in regard to it is that \vhich e.rclude.1' allreasonabll' doubt. Our proofs are conclusive, but not coercive. They carry conviction to those who consider them with open minds, but not to those who are blinded by passion or prejudice. "Mathematical propositions," says the French philosopher Malebranche, "are not attacked simply because the human passions are not interested in attacking them. But if the Pythagorean proposition imposed any moral obligation, it would certainly be attacked. If some Academy of Science were to set up the Sixth and Seventh Commandments as scientific propo- sitions, the validity of these propositions would immediately be called in question by all the adulterers and thieves in the world." c I a xviii INTRODUCTION 3. The real function of Apologetics is twofold.-(a) to sat- isfy the intellect of the honest inquirer, and, with the aid of grace, to awaken in him the pius credulitatis affectus-the pious longing for the Faith; ( b) to strengthen in the believer the resolve never to barter his holy Faith for the shallow theories of a false philos- ophyor the mess of pottage of a false morality. In a letter dated January 6, 1815, Volta, the famous scientist, declares: "I have always believed and still believe the holy Catholic Faith to be the one true and infallible religion. In this Faith I recognize a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace. But I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief and overthrow such doubts as may arise to tempt me. I have given attentive study to the �oundations of my Faith. I have read in the works both of defenders and assailants of the Faith arguments �or and against it, and have derived thence arguments in its �avor which render it most acceptable even to the purely natural reason and prove it to be such that any mind unperverted by sin and passion, any healthy and generous mind, carnlot but accept and love it" (Kneller, Christianity and the Repre- sentatives of Moder,~ Science, St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., p. 116). 4. In order to profit by the study of Apologetics, we must approach it in the right spirit-the sfririt of h~tmility; for if there is a God, the attitude of ollr soul towards Him must necessarily be the humble petition: "Lord, that I may see." And we must purge our hearts from the dominion of the passions, for only the pure of heart shall see God-in this life as well as in the next. 5. The student of Apologetics should heed the admonition of St. Augustine : "We must not want to solve all the difficulties against the Faith before \\.e believe, in order that our life may not come to an end without faith. Simple faith gives us an ever deeper understanding of the things of faith. By faith we subject ourselves to God. If we subject ourselves to God, we shall live right; if we live right, our heart becomes pure; and if Ollr heart is pure, we shall see the truth of what we believe." Supplementary Reading Faith Is a Gift of God Faith is a gift of God, and not a mere act of our own, which we are free to exert when we will. It is quite distinct from an exercise of reason. though it follows, upon it. I may �eel the force of an argument for the divine origin of the Church; I may see that I ought to believe; and yet I may be unable to believe. ...Faith is not a mere conviction in reason, it is a firm assent, it is a clear certainty greater than any other certainty; INTRODUCTION xix and this is wrought in the mind by the grace of God, and by it alone. As then men may be convinced, and not act according to their conviction, so may they be convinced, and not believe according to their conviction. ... In a word, the arguments fQr religion dQ not compel anyone to believe, just as arguments for good conduct do not compel anyone to obey. Obedience is the consequence of willing to obey, and faith is the consequence of willing to believe; we may see what is right, whether in matters of faith or obedience, of ourselves, but we cannot will what is right without the grace of God. -NEWMAN, Discourses to Mired Congregations, p. 224. The Study of the Science of Apologetics N ecessary Especially in Our Dajl Though the existence of God is a truth koowable, and easily knowable, \y the light of reason, there are many that call that truth in question. Professed Agnostics are perhaps more numerous now than they have ever been before. How to account for this increase in Agnosticism, who can tell ? The advances made in physical science can give no clue to it. ... But whatever the reason may be, Agnosticism is apparently on the increase. It is difficult to avoid contact with Agnostics. They are to be met with in every rank of life. Some of them are aggressive and wish to meet us in discussion. Others profess a wish to believe, and invite us to remove their difficulties. If we ought to be prepared to justify the faith that is i~ us, much more ought we to be prepared to justify that conviction of God's existence, which is presupposed by all our faith. We ought to be able to defend this conviction against any that might choose to assail it; and still more ought we to be able to extend a helping hand to such as might come tD us in the spirit of honest inquiry. We say in a spirit of honest inquiry, for it may very well be that one who has through no fault of his lost belief in God, is no\V honestly endeavoring to find his way back to the truth. -GILDEA, Introduction to HAMMERSTEIN, Foundations of Faith, St. Louis: B. Herder Book Co., p. ix. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND REVIEW I. In what form do we possess all our knowledge ? 2. When are our judgments true ? false ? certain ? uncertain ? 3. What is meant by the sources of knowledge ? 4. What is meant by self-evident truths ? Give examples. S. How do we acquire knowledge of truths which are not self-evident ? 6. When are our senses infallible sources of truth ? 7. What is the difference between human and divine faith ? 8. Define divine faith. VlThat is its motive ? its object ? 9. What part does the will play in the act of faith ? 10. Is faith an abdication of reason ? Why not ? 11. What is meant by the judgment of credibility ? On what other judgments does it rest ? What are these called ? - xx INTRODUCTION 12. What is our position in regard to mysteries ? 13. Define Apologetics. What three questions does it answer ? 14. Who are the opponents of the Catholic Apologist ? 15. What kind of certainty can we attain in regard to the foundations of our faith ? 16. What is the real function of Apologetics ? 17. Why should we study Apologetics in the spirit of humility ? 18. Write a brief paragraph on each of the following : Agnostic, St. Tholnas Aq..inas, Vatican Council, J.falebranche, Volta, Sf. Augusfine. (Consult the New Catholic Dictionary or the Catholic Encyclopedia.)